For Emmanuel Macron, she was the indispensable partner. So Angela Merkel’s decision to stand down now as CDU party leader and as chancellor in 2021 has forced the French president to rapidly reassess prospects for a critical relationship with Berlin.

Mr Macron is a convinced pro-European with an ambitious agenda to revitalise the EU and fend off the populist threat. Since coming to power in 2017, he has set out to make France once again a reliable and credible partner for Germany in the hope that Berlin will back his reform ideas. But soon he could be dealing with a German chancellor who is less accommodating than Ms Merkel.

For the moment, Mr Macron is reduced to the role of bystander to German political developments that could shape the future of Europe — a position often held by European leaders during a decade of EU decision-making dominated by Ms Merkel.